| IntroductionWith increased globalization | | | | difference between infrastructure supporting |
| people have seen the need to increase wealth | | | | recursive skills which are typically routine |
| creation especially within the underdeveloped | | | | in nature and infrastructure supporting the |
| Third World. It has also become evident that | | | | nurturing of innovation and making skills. |
| neither the government nor the formal sector | | | | These involve designing, innovating, |
| can supply the necessary job creation without | | | | communicating in groups, problem solving, |
| a sustained effort and partnerships between | | | | face-to-face communication, idea generation |
| all sectors of the economy. One means of | | | | and group-work (Ali, 2001:41). Brown and |
| creating work opportunities will be the | | | | Duguid (1991) quoted by Ali (2001:342) make |
| development of entrepreneurial and innovative | | | | use of the expression "communities of |
| skills within the country. The creation of | | | | practice" to describe the social context for |
| such job opportunities by encouraging | | | | developing work, learning and innovation. |
| entrepreneurial innovation has been well | | | | Lin, Li and Chen (2004:4) and Markman and |
| illustrated by Dana, Korot and Tovstiga | | | | Baron (2003:291) make use of the term "social |
| (2005:12) in Silicon Valley, Israel, | | | | capital" to describe the ability to establish |
| Singapore and the Netherlands. These authors | | | | networks of supporting relationships. This |
| report that in the narrow 35 mile by 10 mile | | | | ability is seen as a means of mobilizing |
| corridor within Silicon Valley 6,500 | | | | environmental resources to overcome obstacles |
| technology enterprises are located. | | | | and threats within the entrepreneurial |
| Singapore is home to almost 100,000 | | | | process. Others have noted how important |
| entrepreneurs and had a per capita GDP of | | | | social capital is in the creation of new |
| US$42,948.00 during 2004 and an annual growth | | | | business ventures. Lin, et al. (2004:4) |
| rate of 8.8% (Singapore Statistics, 2006).In | | | | recognize the need for formal and informal |
| addition higher education has become a prime | | | | funding relationships within the business |
| export commodity of total world services | | | | environment. Such entrepreneurs are termed |
| trade, amounting to a staggering 3% | | | | "business angels" for they gain access to |
| (Grundling & Steynberg, 2006:5). With the | | | | required resources, such as capital |
| increased interest in entrepreneurial | | | | investors, suitable distributors and talented |
| innovation as an economic driver there is a | | | | employees from the external environment. |
| need to develop expertise within this area. | | | | Lin, et al. (2004:6) thus regard social |
| Thus there is a need to develop | | | | capital as "entrepreneurial social |
| entrepreneurial innovation knowledge within | | | | infrastructure". Harris, Forbes and Fletcher |
| higher education institutions to ensure the | | | | (2000:125-126) suggest that planning |
| maintenance of a competitive edge in an under | | | | "dampens" the entrepreneurial spirit and that |
| developed market. Dana, et al. (2005:10) | | | | emergent problems tended to be better |
| define knowledge as "the integration of | | | | training triggers than planned approaches. |
| information, ideas, experience, intuition, | | | | It is proposed that the learning style for |
| skills and lessons learned that creates added | | | | entrepreneurs should be one using |
| value for a firm". In addition Dana et el. | | | | facilitators, learning by doing, interactive |
| (2005) define innovation as "the process by | | | | classroom approaches, peer group work, |
| which knowledge is transformed into new or | | | | problem solving, grasping opportunities and |
| significantly modified products and/or | | | | holistic approaches. It is recommended that |
| services that establish the firm's | | | | inputs should be made by outside speakers and |
| competitive edge". It can thus be seen that | | | | entrepreneurs (Harris, et al., 2000:126). |
| it is imperative that higher education in | | | | Johnson (1987:31, in Harris et al., 2000) |
| South Africa actively pursue a policy to | | | | states that an entrepreneur's planned |
| encourage entrepreneurial innovation to | | | | approach to any problem should be problem |
| ensure the creation of expertise, the | | | | awareness, problem diagnosis, the development |
| development of new industries and the | | | | of solutions and the selection of a solution. |
| empowering of students to establish | | | | Once again the need for "an emergent" |
| themselves within an entrepreneurial | | | | approach rather than a "planned approach" is |
| innovative culture. Higher education will be | | | | emphasized. In addition, Harris, et al. |
| required to become a key player in | | | | (2000:133) emphasize the need for long |
| domesticating knowledge and diffusing it into | | | | standing close relationships in the |
| the economy in order to serve as engines for | | | | development of the entrepreneur. Such |
| community development and social renewal | | | | partners can share vision, and serve as |
| (Grundling & Steynberg, 2006:6).Problem | | | | sounding boards for ideas and concerns. |
| statementThe research question under | | | | These relationships are vital for the |
| discussion is formulated as What minimum | | | | development of innovative thinking. The |
| requirements should be set in an | | | | findings suggest that entrepreneurs must be |
| entrepreneurial and innovation framework in | | | | trained in a less structured way, which |
| order to support entrepreneurial and | | | | involve group work, class discussions, |
| innovation knowledge creation at institutions | | | | specialist input, a concentration of social |
| of higher education?PurposeThis article | | | | skills, communicating and conflict |
| attempts to develop a framework to encourage | | | | management. The methodology must involve |
| entrepreneurial thinking within a higher | | | | face to face contact and the developing of |
| education environment, taking into account | | | | lasting relationships.Another factor that |
| consideration policy and infrastructural | | | | should be written into the curriculum is the |
| requirements, knowledge creation fundamentals | | | | ability to deal with problems that arise and |
| and institutional arrangements.Policy | | | | then to reschedule goals so as to accommodate |
| interventionPolicy initiatives within higher | | | | the new situation. This is clearly |
| education institutions are essential to | | | | illustrated by Ireland, Kuratko and Morris |
| establish guidance for entrepreneurs, funding | | | | (2006:12) showing the presence of internal |
| agencies, industry, labour in general and for | | | | and external triggers of corporate |
| students and institutions of higher education | | | | entrepreneurship. External triggers that |
| in particular. From a higher education | | | | encourage entrepreneurship arise from |
| perspective government as well as | | | | developments in the external environment. |
| institutional policy requirements will be | | | | These include diminishing opportunities, |
| discussed in brief.·Government policiesIf | | | | rapid changes in technology, labour |
| this is to be accomplished it will require | | | | shortages, aggressive moves by competitors, |
| government intervention to construct policies | | | | change in the market structure or regulatory |
| which should include the reduction of | | | | threats. Internal triggers include employee |
| taxation in the form of capital gains tax | | | | rewards, directives from managers, tension |
| rate, providing incentives for increased | | | | between staff, problems with cost control, |
| spending on research and development, | | | | etc. Ireland, et al. (2006:12). Triggers |
| encouraging active venture capital markets, | | | | for entrepreneurship may be summed up in the |
| an alteration of the 'hiring and firing' | | | | statement "necessity is the mother of |
| labour regulations, and encouraging the | | | | invention". This once again emphasis the |
| spending on new technology shares (Da Rin, | | | | need for trainers to concentrate on the |
| Nicodano & Sembenelli, 2005:8).·The higher | | | | entrepreneurial process rather than the |
| education institution policiesThe higher | | | | content, with particular emphasis on change, |
| education institution must provide a working | | | | the unexpected and resolving problems that |
| atmosphere in which entrepreneurship can | | | | emerge within any particular process.Markman |
| thrive. Venkataraman (2003:154) proposes | | | | and Baron (2003:288) regard self-efficacy as |
| that it is not merely the injection of | | | | an important success factor in developing |
| capital that enhances the development of | | | | entrepreneurs. Self-efficacy is defined as |
| entrepreneurship. Rather, it is the tangible | | | | "the extent to which persons believe that |
| infrastructural essentials such as capital | | | | they can organize effectively, execute |
| markets, advanced telecommunications, sound | | | | actions to produce given attainments" |
| legal and transportation systems. In | | | | (Bandura, 1997 quoted by Markman and Baron |
| addition, intangible components must be in | | | | 2003:288). Successful entrepreneurs will |
| place. These intangibles are access to novel | | | | have high self-efficacy and tend to believe |
| ideas, informal forums, role models, region | | | | that their actions will lead to a successful |
| specific opportunities, access to large | | | | venture. It is also suggested that |
| markets, safety nets and executive | | | | entrepreneurs need to recognize opportunities |
| leadership. As policy within the institution | | | | from possible businesses. In addition it is |
| is developed it must consider and include a | | | | suggested that entrepreneurs need |
| planning process to accommodate these | | | | perseverance and need to be able to overcome |
| essentials.Policy must also augment the | | | | adversity and uncertainty. The curriculum |
| entrepreneurial culture within the higher | | | | should thus contain training on self esteem, |
| education institution as a new mindset of | | | | reliability, perseverance, overcoming |
| students must be established from one of | | | | setbacks, having a vision, setting goals and |
| expecting to be employed, to one of providing | | | | rescheduling if things go wrong.Boussouara |
| work opportunities for others. Technology | | | | and Deakins (1999:204) suggest that a gradual |
| licensing offices (TLOs) must be established | | | | approach into a high technology business can |
| at the higher education institutions. | | | | be an advantage in that it allows time to |
| Stanford University sponsored research | | | | develop contacts, strategy, and networks as |
| expenditures of US$391 million generated 25 | | | | well as gives time to acquire funding and |
| TLO start ups in 1997 (Gregorio & Shane, | | | | income. The latter authors emphasize the |
| 2003:209). An investment in patent rights by | | | | need to acquire market-based knowledge for a |
| the higher education institutions will ensure | | | | successful business (Boussouara & Deakins, |
| future capital investments into the | | | | 1999:205). It is thus recommended that |
| institution. Intellectual property (IP) | | | | networks and external business agents present |
| policies should be framed so as to capture | | | | relevant market research to the trainees. |
| the wealth generated and to distribute it | | | | These findings should be brainstormed and |
| equitably between investors, partners, the | | | | shared in the larger group.ConclusionIn this |
| university and the entrepreneur. Such | | | | article an attempt has been made to develop a |
| rewards will generate future interest for | | | | framework for the development of |
| both the investors and the entrepreneurs. | | | | entrepreneurial thinking within a higher |
| Policies, procedures and network contacts to | | | | education environment. This framework needs |
| capture venture capital must be | | | | to be supported by government policy |
| established.Research and Development policies | | | | initiatives and include taxation incentives |
| in entrepreneurship must be refined and | | | | for entrepreneurs, encouraging investment in |
| focused. Currently, the focus of | | | | research and development, incentives for |
| entrepreneurial research at Tshwane | | | | industry for active venture capital and |
| University of Technology in South Africa | | | | alterations to the labour law to accommodate |
| falls within the three niche areas of | | | | small entrepreneurial industries. In |
| business clustering, business development and | | | | addition techno-parks should be developed in |
| management of innovation. In each of these | | | | conjunction with government to expose |
| niche areas it will be necessary to develop | | | | students to the entrepreneurial |
| Masters and Doctorate programmes in | | | | culture.Research should be done within the |
| entrepreneurship and innovation. This in | | | | business development niche area to |
| turn will mean a need for the improvement of | | | | investigate these policies and communicate |
| the staff qualification profile within these | | | | the needs to government. If government |
| areas. Along with the Masters and Doctorate | | | | officials are participating in the knowledge |
| programmes, accredited research outputs must | | | | node it might provide the necessary exposure |
| be produced in entrepreneurship and | | | | to government.Policy initiatives from within |
| innovation (Grundling & Steynberg, 2006:6). | | | | the higher education institution should |
| In addition to the Masters degrees in | | | | establish the knowledge node which should |
| Entrepreneurship and the Masters degree in | | | | include academic specialists, research |
| Comparative Local Development, a Masters | | | | foundations, relevant government officials, |
| degree in Cognitive Reasoning should be | | | | industrial partners, specialists from |
| considered for the future. Such a course | | | | industry, foreign investors, community |
| should include a thorough foundation in | | | | forums, labour unions, funding agencies, |
| finance reasoning along with creative | | | | students and potential entrepreneurs. |
| thinking and business planning.Institutional | | | | Information networks connecting entrepreneurs |
| structures to be establishedThe higher | | | | to venture capitalists should be established |
| education institution will have to establish | | | | within this knowledge node. Intellectual |
| itself as a seamless knowledge node into | | | | Property policies should be developed by the |
| which a variety of parties can contribute. | | | | business development niche area to ensure |
| Parties contributing to such a knowledge node | | | | that possible TLO start-ups within the higher |
| might include industrial partners, | | | | education institution are protected and that |
| specialists from industry, relevant | | | | patenting, marketing or other up-front costs |
| government agencies, foreign investors, | | | | are paid by the higher education institution |
| community forums, labour unions, academic | | | | or associated enterprises. The higher |
| specialists, research foundations, funding | | | | education institution could liaise with the |
| agencies, students and potential | | | | Innovation Hub established in conjunction |
| entrepreneurs. Such a node would provide the | | | | with the CSIR. A cooperation agreement could |
| necessary contact between entrepreneurs, | | | | benefit both parties. Research should be |
| funding agencies, industry and labour. This | | | | carried out by the business clustering niche |
| will ensure exposure of research and | | | | area to select the most appropriate |
| innovative ideas to the relevant parties. It | | | | combinations and networking within the |
| would also provide a relevant export/import | | | | knowledge node.To ensure intellectual |
| platform for entrepreneurship within the | | | | eminence the correct researchers, academics |
| country. In addition to this, regular | | | | and industrialists should be chosen within |
| colloquia should be held to allow potential | | | | the entrepreneurship cluster. Incubators and |
| entrepreneurs to expose their innovative | | | | TLOs should be founded to "ripen' developing |
| ideas to the funding agencies. An | | | | technologies and to form small innovative |
| information network connecting entrepreneurs | | | | industries. Research within this area could |
| to venture capitalists should be established | | | | be done by the niche areas business |
| within this knowledge node.Such forums would | | | | development and management of innovation.A |
| allow industrial partners to present | | | | funding agency for the entrepreneurship |
| commercially-oriented research proposals to | | | | innovation (previously termed the |
| the higher education institution which | | | | institutional foundation) could be located |
| funding agencies in turn would be willing to | | | | close to the industry partners for |
| fund. Gregorio and Shane (2003:212) also | | | | fundraising. All three niche areas should be |
| emphasize the need for the higher education | | | | actively networked with industries on an |
| institution to demonstrate intellectual | | | | ongoing basis, communicating needs and |
| eminence. It is suggested that better | | | | proposals.A teaching strategy should be |
| quality researchers are more likely to | | | | developed to foster tacit knowledge |
| exploit inventions than lesser qualified | | | | development. Group work, problem solving, |
| researchers. The intellectual eminence also | | | | idea generation, innovating, designing and |
| makes it easier for researchers involved to | | | | face to face communication should be |
| start enterprises and to exploit their | | | | extensively used. Smaller classrooms need to |
| inventions (Gregorio & Shane, 2003:212). In | | | | be utilized allowing for group work. |
| addition, more eminent researchers provide a | | | | Curricula should include topics like self |
| better knowledge base and this in turn will | | | | efficacy, perseverance and the need to |
| attract better qualified researchers and | | | | overcome adversity. In addition market-based |
| students. To ensure an intellectual eminence | | | | knowledge should be presented by specialists |
| of their outputs, higher education | | | | from the industry on an ongoing basis. |
| institutions should select students | | | | Networking should be a normal part of the |
| carefully.The higher education institution | | | | curriculum and will allow venture capitalists |
| should also encourage the development of | | | | to be connected to the innovations developed |
| incubators, either close to the institution | | | | within the knowledge node.If South Africa and |
| or close to the involved industry. This will | | | | institutions of higher education do not see |
| certainly influence the start up capital | | | | the need to develop entrepreneurship within |
| expenditure. Gregorio and Shane (2003:213) | | | | all communities, people may be delegated to a |
| suggest that such incubators would allow | | | | life of poverty, with no opportunity to work |
| entrepreneurs to "ripen" technologies in | | | | or to develop South Africa's rich natural |
| close proximity to inventors and | | | | resources for future |
| specialists.The establishment of technology | | | | generations.ReferencesALI, Y. 2001. The |
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